托福閱讀常見題型與解題策略

Later, James Watt made significant improvements to Newcomen’s design. Watt added a separate condenser, which allowed the main cylinder to remain hot while condensation occurred elsewhere. This innovation dramatically increased efficiency by reducing the amount of fuel needed to operate the engine. Watt’s engine was eventually adapted for use in a variety of industries, including textiles and transportation, thus playing a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution.

During the Industrial Revolution, transportation underwent significant changes that facilitated economic and social transformation. Before this period, people relied primarily on horses, rivers, and coastal shipping to move goods and people. The invention of the steam engine, however, brought about new means of transport. Railroads, in particular, became symbols of progress and efficiency. George Stephenson’s development of the locomotive in the early 19th century allowed freight and passengers to be transported over long distances at unprecedented speeds. This innovation reduced the cost of goods and broadened markets.

Later, steamships began to replace sailing vessels, especially for longer voyages across the ocean. Steamships could travel faster and more reliably, regardless of wind conditions. The combination of railroads and steamships reshaped global trade networks and contributed to the rapid expansion of industrial economies. As transportation costs declined, consumer access to products increased, and raw materials could be moved quickly to factories, accelerating production. In addition, new cities developed along rail lines and ports, forming the backbone of modern urban development.

The invention of the mechanical clock in medieval Europe marked a turning point in how people measured and perceived time. Before this, most societies relied on natural indicators such as the position of the sun or water clocks, which were limited in accuracy and consistency. The mechanical clock, which utilized gears and weights to measure equal intervals of time, allowed for much greater precision. By the 14th century, large clocks were installed on public towers in European cities, making a standardized concept of time accessible to the public.

As clocks became more widespread, they began to influence aspects of daily life. Work schedules, religious activities, and even social expectations gradually shifted to align with the regularity provided by mechanical timekeeping. This transformation contributed to a new sense of punctuality and discipline that became essential in emerging industrial economies. In addition, the growing complexity of clocks led to the rise of a specialized class of craftsmen: clockmakers, who combined knowledge of mechanics, artistry, and mathematics.

In the early 20th century, the Bauhaus movement in Germany sought to bridge the gap between fine art and industrial design. Its founders believed that artistic creativity should serve functional purposes and that well-designed objects could improve everyday life. Walter Gropius, one of the leaders of the movement, invited painters, architects, and craftsmen to collaborate in an environment that emphasized simplicity, utility, and modern aesthetics.

The movement’s influence was far-reaching, especially in architecture, where geometric shapes, flat roofs, and open spaces became hallmarks of its design principles. Even after the Bauhaus school was closed by the Nazi regime in 1933, many of its former members emigrated to the United States and continued to teach and create, spreading the movement’s ideals internationally.